Introduction
1872-1898 marked a crucial point in the history of the Philippines, as it encapsulated the spread of the Propaganda Movement which sought to expose the atrocities of the Spanish colonial government in the Philippines and ended with the expulsion of the Spanish from the islands. Throughout this time period, we witness the birth and the flourishing of a new intellectual and social class, this being the Ilustrados, of whom many are regarded as national heroes today. This includes José Rizal, Juan Luna, Graciano López Jaena, and Marcelo del Pilar who all sought to protect the rights of the Filipino people by advocating for reforms. On the other hand, it was the KKK ANB (Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK)) who mobilized the Filipino masses and fought for Philippines’ independence through armed revolt.
This perceived disjuncture between the KKK and the Ilustrados, forms the basis of my research question, which is: if the Ilustrados aided or hampered the KKK in gaining Philippine independence? I argue that the Ilustrados, and their organizations (i.e. the Spain-based publication La Solidaridad and its subsequent Philippine-based La Liga Filipina), complemented and provided a starting point for the KKK to build off of and mobilize the Filipino masses in revolting against the Spanish by dispelling colonial mentality amongst Filipinos and promoting nationalism, spreading awareness on the socio-political climate in the Philippines, and by, persuading the KKK to resort to armed revolution due to the Ilustrados failures to achieve these reforms. I seek to prove that the relationship between the Ilustrados and the KKK albeit being complicated in nature, was in fact complementary and not at odds with one another.
1872-1898 Life Under Spanish Rule| Friarcracy and Censure
In order for us to understand the complexities and the significance of the KKK and the Ilustrados, we must first temporally situate ourselves. The Philippines was a Spanish colony from 1521-1898. However, despite the fact that the Spanish state held authority over the islands in de jurae, it was the Spanish friars in de facto that exercised their authority most prolifically with the colonial administration in provinces outside of Manila later developing into “friarcracies (frailocracias).”[1][2] According to Ronald E. Dolan, the Spanish Catholic friars held various executive and administrative powers outside of Manila, the most notable of which included their monopolistic power over education in the region which severely restrained intellectual and cultural life in the Philippines, their responsibility to report on the individual character of Filipinos, report supposed acts of sedition and maintain public morality, and their role in supervising the selection of town officials and the police.[3] The friars were the largest owners of land in the Philippines outside of Manila, garnering them a massive profit through land taxes; and were granted leeway by the Spanish state as there was an insufficient amount of Spaniards living outside of the capital to properly assert Spanish dominance without them.[4]
To bolster the censure of new and radical ideas, the Permanent Commission of Censors was formed and tasked with the censoring of all new and radical ideas from all publications, shows, and artistic works.[5] This left little room for historically accurate and especially revolutionary publications to be circulated in the archipelago, with mainly the works of friars and any other publication that focused on sorrow and the racial inferiority of the Filipinos passing the censure.[6] This heavily reflected the friars’ general attitude towards educating the Filipinos, who viewed it as a means to treachery and rebellion. One Spanish friar notes that “it is not good for the Indio (Native Filipino) to separate from his carabao in order to waste his time studying in Manila because, when he returns to his place of origin, he becomes treacherous, meaning an enemy of the state, of the church, and those in power.”[7] This resulted in many Ilustrados longing for a more expressive intellectual climate, influencing them to travel to Europe and other destinations to freely express themselves and pursue liberal education that did not run the risk of being censored by the Spanish Friars.
GOMBURZA Incident 1872
1872, and more specifically the GOMURZA incident marked a turning point in Philippine history. GOMBURZA refers to three Filipino priests (Mariano (Go)mez, José (Bu)rgos, and Jacinto (Za)mora who were publicly executed via garrotte under false accusations of treason and sedition in 1872.[8] All three priests were native Filipinos and/or mestizos (Filipino mixed with Chinese or Spanish blood) and were part of the growing secularization movement, which called for reforms allowing native Filipinos to become parish priests and to take authoritative posts in the Catholic Church which Spanish Friars enjoyed.[9] To quell the Secularization Movement, the Spanish Friars used racial tropes to justify how native Filipino’s were unfit for priesthood. The dramatic nature of their execution is felt through the last words of Fr. Burgos who was believed to have said: “But what crime have I committed? Is it possible that I should die like this? My God is there no justice on earth…but I am innocent.”[10] The public execution of these priests lingered in the cultural memory of a sizeable number of Filipinos, most especially the Ilustrados and members of the KKK. Their sentencing and execution despite calling for peaceful reforms would be used by Filipino KKK revolutionaries to liken them to the Ilustrados, as enemies of the state despite their avoidance of using arms.
The Ilustrados and the KKK ANB / KKK at a Glance
The Ilustrados (or the enlightened ones) were middle-class Filipinos who studied and/or lived in Europe, most of them residing in Madrid and Barcelona. They are considered to have promoted nationalism and patriotism through their pieces of art and literary works, and by forming various socio-political organizations that advocated for reforms. They sought to achieve this, by spreading awareness on the socio-political condition in the Philippines and to correct racist images and rhetoric surrounding Filipinos. This is referred to as the Propaganda Movement,[11] which called for the following reforms:
- Incorporating the Philippines as a Spanish Province
- The Provision of Basic Human Rights
- Representation at the Spanish Cortes
- Education Independent from the Spanish Friars
- The Secularization of the Spanish Priesthood (allowing native Filipino priests to be ordained and take positions of authority in the Philippines)[12]
As aforementioned, the influence of the Ilustrados on the Philippine Revolution is contested as the group that rallied the Filipino people to revolt against Spain was not the Ilustrados, but the KKK, founded by Andres Bonifacio.[13] This secret organization sought to gain total independence for the Philippines through armed revolution, and is noted to be a “proletarian” organization as its membership mainly consisted of Tagalog-speaking blue-collared workers (i.e. milk vendors, firemen, barbers, shoemakers, laundrymen, etc.). [14][15]
At first glance their political goal seems to be in direct contrast with the reforms proposed by the Ilustrados, however it is important to note that José Rizal himself was not necessarily opposed to the idea of armed revolution in its entirety. Rizal opposed the idea of gaining Philippine Independence through armed revolt, specifically because he thought that the Filipino peoples did not possesses a sufficient number of military arms and support to successfully topple the armed Spanish colonial administration, resulting in him settling to pursue reforms instead to avoid the anticipated bloodshed. This is supported by the fact that upon being visited by Dr. Pio Valenzuela in exile, and being notified that there was an impending rebellion amongst the Filipino masses José Rizal replied with:
“Never start a revolution without arms against an armed nation. Its consequences would be fatal and disastrous to the country. Filipinos will necessarily lose because of lack of arms. Once they prove victorious, the Spanish will annihilate those Filipinos who love their country; they will use all means to oppose the intellectual, moral, and material progress of the Filipinos, who sunk in misery, will find it hard to start another revolution.”[16]
The sentiments present in the aforementioned quote triangulates with Rizal’s testimony to Colonel Francisco Olive during his interrogation, and his statement to José Alejandrino where he explicitly clarifies that he would support an armed revolution should once occur in the Philippines, but he would not lead it himself. This can be seen in the written statement given to José Alejandrino by Rizal, wherein he states that: “I will never head a disorderly revolution that has no probability of success, because I don’t want to lad my conscience with the imprudent and futile shedding of blood; but he who wishes to lead a revolution in the Philippines will find me by his side![17]
Erasing Colonial Mentality and Stirring Nationalism
A substantive mechanism in the maintenance of colonial empires is through the justification of colonization on a certain ground. The justification behind the colonizing of the Filipinos was riddled with racial tropes, pitting them as backwards savages in need of salvation. Given the control and censure that the friars and colonial officials held over the Philippines, the citizenry was exposed to a curriculum that engrained colonial mentality (i.e., the belief that colonialism was beneficial to one’s race or nation). This can be acutely felt in the words of Father Cura Gaspar de San Agustin who said that the “Filipino descended from apes and had half a soul, ”[18] and Francisco Cañaque y Jiménez a Spanish historian who noted in 1877 that the “indolence of the (native) Filipinos was beyond remedy.”[19] The Ilustrados actively worked to counter this by correcting historical inaccuracies and spreading awareness on precolonial traditions and practices, which not only dispelled colonial mentality amongst Filipinos and promoted nationalism, but subsequently taught the Filipinos that they were capable of self-governance despite the racial stereotypes imposed onto them. An example of this is, Rizal’s Sore la Indolencia de los Filipinos where he notes that it was the Spaniards who were indolent. Here he states that:
“They are surrounded by many helpers, they never walk, instead they always ride their carriages, and they always need helpers, not only to remove their boots and shoes but to fan them… they live and eat abundantly, work only for themselves alone in order to become rich, with hope in the future free and respected, while the lowly subjects, the lazy subjects are not eating well, they are without hope, they work for others and are forced to work, and are even raped.”[20]
The Ilustrados worked to actively dispel these racist tropes through literary and artistic works, like Juan Luna’s 1885 Blood Compact (Pacto de Sangre), which depicts Sikatuna and Miguel Legazpi ceremonially drinking eachother’s blood.[21] Interestingly this echoes Rizal’s questioning of the term conquest when referring to the Spanish conquest of the Philippines wherein he suggests the “Cebu, Panay, Luzon, Mindoro and other parts of the Philippines were acquired through pacts, treaties of friendship and reciprocal alliances which suggests equivalence amongst both signatories (native Filipino and Spanish).”[22] This echoes the Ilustrado’s greater goals of proving that Filipinos were of an equal or higher civility than their Spanish counterparts, so as to prove that they were worthy of being a Spanish province with equal rights.
It is important to note however, that the Ilustrados were subject to their own biases as well, which primarily those related to class. This can be seen in the fact that the Ilustrados most often used Spanish in their written works and their daily affairs, which despite being the vernacular for elite Indios (native Malay Filipinos), Mestizo (Mixed-race), Peninsulares, Americanos, and Insulares/Filipinos (people of pure Spanish descent born in Spain, Spanish America, and the Philippines respectively) was not the vernacular of Indios (native Filipinos) who hailed from lower-middle classes. This can arguably be due to the fact that the principal audience of the Ilustrado’s were those who hailed from upper social classes and held positions of authority, as Rizal himself arguably “hoped that the Spanish-literate members of the town elite would lead poorer members onto a path of liberal revolution like France and America.”[23]
The Ilustrados also reinterpreted historically notable events in the colonization of the Philippines, and worked to spread awareness on how Filipinos had precolonial traditions and practices that were ruined when the Spanish conquered.[24] Some notable works include Pedro Paterno’s La Antigua Civilización Tagala, Las Islas, and Ninay: Costumbres Filipinas which described the lives of Tagalog royalty, their advanced culture, and cultural influences from other cultures,[25] and José Rizal’s Centro de Cien Años which reminded the Spanish of the intricate legal system, customs, and modes of governance in pre-colonial Philippines.[26]
Another vivid example of Ilustrado-made nationalist works is José Rizal’s Essay El Amor Patrio (For the love of country) which was published in the Manila-based Diariong Tagalog while he was residing in Spain.[27] This newspaper was the first bilingual newspaper, writing in both Spanish and Tagalog. It becomes evident in the following excerpt that this poem sought to stir nationalism amongst its Filipinos readers. The excerpt reads: “whatever be her name, her age, her fortune. We always love her as children love their mother even in hunger and poverty, and how strange it is! The poorer and more miserable we are and the more we suffer for our country, so much the more do we venerate and adore her even to the point of finding joy in our suffering.”[28] Given the number of censures in the Philippines, the works of Ilustrado’s were often composed or created in Europe and were some of the sole sources of nationalistic works for the native Filipino upper-middle class.
The impact of these nationalist works is imminent in the fact that Bonifacio himself, the leader of the KKK was known to have been inspired by the works of José Rizal alongside other European revolutionaries.[29] The influence of these works on Bonifacio is seen in the following initiation statement for KKK members:
“When the Spaniards came to us … the Filipinos living along the coasts already knew how to have a good livelihood and citizenship. Back then, we Filipinos were free citizens; there were cannons; we knew how to wear silk clothes; we were already negotiating trade with neighboring countries in Asia. We had our own faith and religion, we have our own letters and writing, we enjoyed freedom and independence.”[30]
Noli and El Fillibusterismo | Exposing the Socio-Political Climate in the Philippines
The second way in which the Ilustrados aided the Philippine Revolution was by regularly writing and spreading awareness on the atrocities being committed in the Philippines, through their transnational newspaper La Solidaridad. Their works brought these atrocities to the forefront of Filipino everyday discourse, mainly through the publishing and circulation of José Rizal’s famous novels Noli Me Tangere (Touch Me Not) and El Fillibusterismo (The Reign of Greed). These two books in particular sought to expose the corrupt and immoral acts of the friars and the weaponizing of religion to oppress native Filipinos. The book centres around Ibarra, a Spanish mestizo who had returned to the Philippines from his studies in Europe and his plight in trying to bring his newfound liberal idealism in a socially conservative Philippines. The main antagonist is Father Salvi who attempts to frame Ibarra for a rebellion that he himself organized, rapes Maria Clara who is Ibarra’s main love interest once she becomes a nun and kills and beats multiple characters.[31] Rizal shows the irony in this and highlights the lack of accountability they enjoy as Salvi gets promoted to a bishop while Ibarra and other characters either die, become mentally destitute, or emigrate out of the country.
2,000 copies of Noli Me Tangere were published and smuggled into the Philippines in 1887.[32] The book instantly became controversial as it was labelled as heretical and subversive by the Special Jury at the Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas[33] and was publicly denounced by multiple friars and politicians in the Spanish Cortes.[34] Its circulation, importation, and reproduction in the Philippines was also prohibited by the Permanent Commission of Censors[35] and caused debates amongst the friars themselves, with Fr. José Rodriguez (Augustinian) circulating pamphlets that deemed Noli me Tangere as heretical and an attack on the church.[36] This was juxtaposed by its Fr. Vicente Garcia who noted that Noli Me Tangere was “not an attack on the church but on the immoral and corrupt practices of the friars and Spanish officials.”[37]However, due to the publicity of the book’s controversial nature, Filipinos were even more intrigued about the contents of the book. This led to its increase in circulation amongst Filipinos which in turn exposed them to the brutalities that they were facing at the hands of the friars, with the book becoming so popular that it became a highly valued commodity with its price jumping from 5 to 50 pesos per copy “at the height of the controversy.”[38] This book later become the reason for the arrest and execution of Rizal, becoming so prolific that José Rizal was exiled shortly after he arrived back in Manila.
It can be presumed that Noli me Tangere was one of the works of Rizal that Bonifacio had read given that the awareness surrounding the atrocities felt by the native Filipinos was prominent amongst the members of the KKK. This is seen in another of the answers iterated by its recruits: “The “friars” are the fiercest opponents of the ingenuity and skill of the Filipinos who in fact do not want us to learn Spanish. So that all the experiences of oppression, rape, atrocities, looking at the Filipinos as if they were different from the Spaniards…”[39]
The Execution of José Rizal | The Failures and Symbolism of the Ilustrados
Arguably, the most significant way in which the Ilustrados complemented and aided the Philippine Revolution was through their failures as a movement. Following the arrest of Rizal in 1892, Andres Bonifacio became disillusioned by the promises of peaceful reforms and founded the KKK.[40]As a former member of La Liga Filipina, a short-lived group of reformers based in the Philippines that Rizal founded prior to his arrest; Bonifacio concluded that the sole way that Filipinos could get basic human rights was through an armed revolution leading to their independence. Similar to the GOMBURZA, the Ilustrados failed to get their reforms ratified and were labelled as enemies of the Spanish colonial state despite using peaceful means to advocate their causes. Rizal became a symbol of martyrdom due to his public execution in 1896 and the translating of his smuggled final poem Mi Ultimo Dios from Spanish to Tagalog by Bonifacio who circulated it amongst the KKK.[41]
Rizal later became venerated amongst the KKK, with his portrait present at all meetings and his name used as a password amongst senior officials in the secret society.[42] The martyrdom of Rizal is echoed by Apolinario Mabini, a notable figure in the Philippine Revolution, whose letter from April 1898 entitled Letter to those who come to the defense of the honor of our country refers to Rizal as “unforgettable, the enlightened son of our country, who died greatly happy because he knew that his death would usher in a life greater than that which our country had just experienced.”[43]
However, it was not solely the deaths and exile of José Rizal, but the Ilustrados broadly who inspired Bonifacio and the KKK to seek for Independence rather than reform. Taken from Bonifacio’s biography, the impact of the failure of Ilustrados can be felt through the following words wherein he names various Ilustrados alongside Rizal:
“the Spanish government and the “friars” —cannot be obtained through petition, pleas and reasoning, instead the response to the deeds of “masons” like Rizal, Del Pilar, Lopez Jaena, Regidor, Cortez and others is that they are considered “enemies of ~ Spain and God, “and many of them and their followers were imprisoned, exiled to distant lands and tortured in prisons, even though they had committed no sin.”[44]
Conclusion
The Ilustrados supported the Philippine Revolution in multiple nuanced ways, despite their overall calls for reform rather than independence. In exposing the socio-political climate in the Philippines and dispelling colonial mentality amongst the Filipinos they stirred a national consciousness that advocated for the provision of not only the provision of basic human rights, but the freedoms attached with self-governance. In their failure to achieve such reforms, their execution, and their exile to foreign lands they instigated what Rizal thought was near impossible, a formidable armed Philippine Revolution. Thus, the relationship between the KKK and the Ilustrados should not be reduced to one that is oppositional, but one filled with nuance and complexity, exchanges of information, shared members, and at times reverence and support of one another.
Alfonso Ralph Mendoza Manalo is a fourth-year undergraduate student at the University of Toronto Scarborough, majoring in Co-op Public Policy and Global Asia Studies and minoring in Critical Migration Studies. He currently works as an Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion Policy Advisor and as an Ad-hoc Race-based Data Collection policy Advisor for the RCMP, an Administration Assistant and Grant Writer at the Filipino Centre Toronto, and as a Research Assistant for Professor Julie Moreau at the University of Toronto’s Department of Political Science. He has also held various research roles across the public and non-for profit sector, including the Richard Charles-Lee Asian Pathways Research Lab at the Asian Institute, the RCMP’s Information Management Branch, the Scarborough Campus Students Union – Racialized Students Collective, the Filipino Centre Toronto, and the Urban Alliance on Race Relations. Some of the topics he is passionate about include Filipinx, Southeast Asian, Diasporic Studies, Race and Racism, Anti-Asian Racism, Public Administration, and Queer Studies. His articles can also be found at Synergy’s sister journal, Re:Locations Journal of the Asia Pacific World.
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“Andres Bonifacio.” In Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., 2:393. GALE, 2004.
Bonoan, Raul J., and Laong Laan. “Rizal’s First Published Essay: ‘El Amor Patrio.’” Philippine Studies 44, no. 3 (1996): 299–320.
Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students. Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.
Choa, Sonia H. C. “Representational Practice in Rizal’s ‘Noli Me Tangere.’” Philippine Studies 47, no. 4 (1999): 550–57.
Cruz, Hermenegildo. Kartilyang Makabayan Mga Tanong at Sagot Ukol Kay Andrés Bonifacio at sa KKK. Maynila, Philippines, 1922. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14822.
Dolan, Ronald E. Philippines: A Country Study. Area Handbook Series. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1993. http://www.loc.gov/item/92039812/.
Escalante, Rene R. “Bonifacio and the Katipunan in the Cuerpo de Vigilancia Archival Collection.” Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints 65, no. 4 (2017): 451–83. https://doi.org/10.1353/phs.2017.0032.
Guillermo, Ramon. “Andres Bonifacio: Proletarian Hero of the Philippines and Indonesia.” Inter-Asia Cultural Studies 18, no. 3 (2017): 338–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649373.2017.1350498.
Ileto, Reynaldo C. “The Road to 1898: On American Empire and the Philippine Revolution.” The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 49, no. 3 (May 4, 2021): 505–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/03086534.2021.1920804.
Library of Congress. “Andrés Bonifacio – The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War,” June 22, 2011. https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/bonifacio.html.
Mabini, Apolinario. The Letters of Apolinario Mabini. Edited by Carlos Quirino. Translated by National Heroes Commission. 2nd ed. Publications of the National Heroes Commission. Ermita, Manila: The National Historical Institute, 1999. https://issuu.com/filipinasheritagelibrary/docs/the_letters_of_apolinario_mabini?e=18015266/13677878.
Quibuyen, Floro. “Rizal and the Revolution.” Philippine Studies 45, no. 2 (1997): 225–57.
Quirino, Carlos. The Great Malayan: The Biography of Rizal. Philippine National Life and Literature Series. Manila, Philippines: Manila Philippine Education Company, 1940. https://issuu.com/filipinasheritagelibrary/docs/the_great_malayan?e=18015266/13751482.
Rizal, Dr. Jose. Rizal’s Correspondence with Fellow Reformists, 1882-1896 (Part 1 of 2). Edited by Carlos Quirino. National Heroes Commission Edition. Vol. 2. Publications of the National Heroes Commission. Manila, Philippines: Republic of the Philippines | Office of the President, 1963. https://issuu.com/filipinasheritagelibrary/docs/rizal_s_correspondence_with_fellow_?e=18015266/13750974.
Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/011719689900800104. Thomas, Megan C. “Lessons in History: The Decline of Spanish Rule, and Revolutionary Strategy.” In Orientalists, Propagandists, and Ilustrados: Filipino Scholarship and the End of Spanish Colonialism, 171–99. Minneapolis, MN, US: University of Minnesota Press, 2012. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/utoronto/detail.action?docID=902557.
[1] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.
[2] Dolan, Ronald E. Philippines: A Country Study. Area Handbook Series. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1993.
[3] Dolan, Ronald E. Philippines: A Country Study. Area Handbook Series. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1993.
[4]Dolan, Ronald E. Philippines: A Country Study. Area Handbook Series. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1993.
[5] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.
[6] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.
[7] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.
[8] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students. Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.
[9] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.
[10] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students. Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.
[11] Dolan, Ronald E. Philippines: A Country Study. Area Handbook Series. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1993.
[12] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.
[13] ““Andres Bonifacio.” In Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., 2:393. GALE, 2004.
[14] Escalante, Rene R. “Bonifacio and the Katipunan in the Cuerpo de Vigilancia Archival Collection.” Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints 65, no. 4 (2017): 451–83.
[15] Ileto, Reynaldo C. “The Road to 1898: On American Empire and the Philippine Revolution.” The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 49, no. 3 (May 4, 2021): 505–26.
[16] Quirino, Carlos. The Great Malayan: The Biography of Rizal. Philippine National Life and Literature Series. Manila, Philippines: Manila Philippine Education Company, 1940. https://issuu.com/filipinasheritagelibrary/docs/the_great_malayan?e=18015266/13751482.
[17] Quirino, Carlos. The Great Malayan: The Biography of Rizal. Philippine National Life and Literature Series. Manila, Philippines: Manila Philippine Education Company, 1940. https://issuu.com/filipinasheritagelibrary/docs/the_great_malayan?e=18015266/13751482.
[18] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.
[19] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.
[20] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.
[21] Thomas, Megan C. “Lessons in History: The Decline of Spanish Rule, and Revolutionary Strategy.” In Orientalists, Propagandists, and Ilustrados: Filipino Scholarship and the End of Spanish Colonialism, 171–99. Minneapolis, MN, US: University of Minnesota Press, 2012.
[22] Thomas, Megan C. “Lessons in History: The Decline of Spanish Rule, and Revolutionary Strategy.” In Orientalists, Propagandists, and Ilustrados: Filipino Scholarship and the End of Spanish Colonialism, 171–99. Minneapolis, MN, US: University of Minnesota Press, 2012.
[23] Ileto, Reynaldo C. “The Road to 1898: On American Empire and the Philippine Revolution.” The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 49, no. 3 (May 4, 2021): 505–26.
[24] Thomas, Megan C. “Lessons in History: The Decline of Spanish Rule, and Revolutionary Strategy.” In Orientalists, Propagandists, and Ilustrados: Filipino Scholarship and the End of Spanish Colonialism, 171–99. Minneapolis, MN, US: University of Minnesota Press, 2012.
[25] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.
[26] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.
[27] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students. Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.
[28] Bonoan, Raul J., and Laong Laan. “Rizal’s First Published Essay: ‘El Amor Patrio.’” Philippine Studies 44, no. 3 (1996): 299–320.
[29] “Andres Bonifacio.” In Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., 2:393. GALE, 2004.
[30] Cruz, Hermenegildo. Kartilyang Makabayan Mga Tanong at Sagot Ukol Kay Andrés Bonifacio at sa KKK. Maynila, Philippines, 1922.
[31] Choa, Sonia H. C. “Representational Practice in Rizal’s ‘Noli Me Tangere.’” Philippine Studies 47, no. 4 (1999): 550–57.
[32] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students. Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.
[33] Choa, Sonia H. C. “Representational Practice in Rizal’s ‘Noli Me Tangere.’” Philippine Studies 47, no. 4 (1999): 550–57.
[34] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students. Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.
[35] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students. Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.
[36] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students. Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.
[37] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students. Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.
[38] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students. Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.
[39] Cruz, Hermenegildo. Kartilyang Makabayan Mga Tanong at Sagot Ukol Kay Andrés Bonifacio at sa KKK. Maynila, Philippines, 1922.
[40] Cruz, Hermenegildo. Kartilyang Makabayan Mga Tanong at Sagot Ukol Kay Andrés Bonifacio at sa KKK. Maynila, Philippines, 1922.
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[43] Mabini, Apolinario. The Letters of Apolinario Mabini. Edited by Carlos Quirino. Translated by National Heroes Commission. 2nd ed. Publications of the National Heroes Commission. Ermita, Manila: The National Historical Institute, 1999. https://issuu.com/filipinasheritagelibrary/docs/the_letters_of_apolinario_mabini?e=18015266/13677878.
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