Abstract: The ongoing Hong Kong protests have been characterised by the movement’s unprecedented scale as it resists the encroachment of mainland China. As the movement has progressed, protestors have established new uniforms for protest, consisting of hardhats, face masks, black shirts, eye patches, etc. The usage and development of these revolutionary garments are markedly different from Western examples of protest fashion and reflect the unique socio-political conditions of Hong Kong, and broadly East Asia. This paper explicates the distinct nature of East Asian fashion and protest cultures by examining artistic representations to understand how these cultural factors affect expression during the Hong Kong protests. Through examining the influence of culture, an analysis of testimonials, protest art, and data collected from the popular forum LIHKG, this paper will illustrate how protest fashion promotes anonymity and solidarity amongst protestors, thereby addressing the dynamic needs of the movement. Broader implications for protest fashion in East Asia, as well as the West, are also discussed.
Keywords: Hong Kong, protest fashion, social movements, Hong Kong protests
Twenty-three years ago, the citizens of Hong Kong were promised a period of autonomy as they were relinquished from British colonial rule back into the control of the People’s Republic of China. On July 1st, 2019, fearing the hastening measures of their caretaker as China preys upon their promised autonomy, the bustling city of Hong Kong was brought to a halt by hundreds of thousands of protestors. In opposition to a controversial extradition law, crowds slowly march forward as an ocean of bodies unified by their black clothing. The crowds are much larger and more forceful than they have been before, and this time, they’re clad in construction hats, face masks, and plastic wrap to protect them from the tear gas and force that will be used against them. In resisting their caretaker and its attempts to silence the movement, Hong Kong has manifested a distinct uniform for the resistance, one which signals that through fashion and force, the protestors will have their voice heard as an unprecedented struggle ensues in the months to follow.
Since 2003, a new dynasty of protest in Hong Kong has emerged as citizens began gathering on the anniversary of their handover in peaceful protest, something not allowed on the mainland. The magnitude of the ongoing Hong Kong protests, which have extended beyond the annual July 1st protests, is unprecedented. Dubbed the “Water Revolution” by the Financial Times, as the movement continues to rage on, protestors have adapted new tactics of mobilisation and expression in the face of state suppression. Activists have developed an arsenal of maneuvers to evade police crackdown, including the use of Tinder and Pokémon Go to distribute protest information.[1] Characteristically, the Water Revolution has adopted several unifying articles of clothing to silently and/or anonymously protest the government (Figure 1). Since the movement’s inception several years prior, black clothing has been used as a signal of resistance. Taking on new signals such as construction hats, eye patches, or face masks, protest fashion in Hong Kong has evolved with the movement to reflect the changing dynamics of protest. These garments have acclimated to cultures of expression and suppression that are common to East Asia but markedly different from the cultural framework of the West. Protest fashion has emerged to address a need for solidarity and anonymity in East Asia and elucidating this context in practise is imperative to comprehending the complex nature of the movement.
While academics have extensively dissected the social and political culture of Hong Kong, they have seemingly neglected their intersection. Fashion is an integral and dynamic form of expression to the movement, adapting new forms of mobilisation under a plethora of symbols and garments. The politicisation of fashion is a universal phenomenon, but it manifests itself in a diverse, culturally unique spectra: from wearing a hijab during the Arab Spring to a “pussy hat” in the Women’s March on Washington. The ongoing academic discussion acknowledges that wardrobe and dress have a unique role in the progression of a social movement, but it is overly saturated with research on Western examples. The small research community that investigates this topic has overwhelmingly relied on broad Eurocentric generalisations to draw conclusions on the role of fashion in protest. These conclusions can provide useful theory for analysing protest fashion but ultimately, as Akkus et. al. affirms, the means and motivations for protest are inherently linked to the cultural values of a society.[2] The current literature on protest fashion has neglected the context of East Asian politics and society and is thus incomplete and insufficient. An investigation into the nature of fashion during East Asian protest is thus critical to understanding the complete picture of social and political dynamics in Hong Kong as its fight for democracy rages on.
If not for its social and political importance, why would China ban the export of black clothing into Hong Kong? Through what means do the wardrobes of activists reflect shifting circumstances in the Water Revolution? How is Hong Kong’s approach to this form of expression moulded by the cultural climate of East Asia? By contextualising protest fashion from the perspective of local activists and the themes of East Asian Culture, my research aims to answer these questions and provide a groundwork for a more multifaceted and nuanced academic discussion of activist dress codes. This paper makes two arguments. To begin, I will examine artistic representations to assert that the fashion and protest cultures of Hong Kong and broadly East Asia are vastly different from that of Western societies. I illustrate how East Asian fashion distinctly appropriates Western styles and symbols to reinterpret them under traditional aesthetics. Then, I assert that East Asian protest has evolved under an environment of government suppression, which promotes political expression that is simultaneously radicalising while prioritising anonymity. Finally, having explicated the distinct cultural landscape of the East, I then present these influences in practise by interpreting personal accounts, data collected from online discussions, and artwork in Hong Kong. Through these perspectives, I exhibit how protest fashion has emerged from a need for anonymity and camaraderie, and have importantly developed into an armour or uniform that satirises the riot gear and brutality used against the protestors.
You Are What You Wear: Fashioning Identities through Clothes
Fashion as a form of expression is especially important for Hong Kong, where the influence and importance of the garment industry promotes the integration of Western and Eastern aesthetics. During Hong Kong’s development, new dynamics in factory work increased the availability of fashion and style to consumers.[3] This consumption was aided by the nature of Hong Kong’s export economy, which quickly adopted and replicated Western styles to promote industry growth. Hong Kong’s many wholesale markets have allowed for the production of specialised materials and an amalgamation of fashion information from all parts of the world.[4] These globalised influences exist in parallel with the traditional aesthetics of Chinese identity and create a hybrid sense of fashion that champions the reinterpretation of European and Asian influences. Hong Kong fashion designer Chloe Sung exemplifies this reconciliation of culture through her dresses, which derive distinct inspiration from Chinese calligraphy (Figure 2). In her 2016 collection, Sung integrates western silhouettes, which are traditionally more form-fitting, with accents such as the brush strokes or red cord belt that illustrates the hybrid nature of Hong Kong fashion.
This continuity of cross-cultural interfusion, in conjunction with a culture of rapid fashion design, creates a distinct fashion culture in Hong Kong but is also uniquely present across East Asian cultures. Interactions with euromodernity in the Meiji period and changing dynamics between social classes prompted the reformation of Japanese attire to reflect new western influences.[5] Masafumi Monden, Lecturer in Japanese Studies at the University of Western Australia, discusses how the diverse set of Japanese fashion subcultures apply traditional aesthetics to appropriated European and American fashion styles to accentuate certain qualities, such as youth, in ways that are different from western interpretations.[6] The deliberative co-opting of the American prep style by Japanese men accentuates their youth through patterns and garments that were traditionally worn by American college students in the late ‘80s and early ‘90s (Figure 3).
The diverse and dynamic nature of modern Japanese fashion relate directly to the fashion culture of Hong Kong; in both, the accessibility and reinterpretation of globalised fashion promotes the use of sartorial modes of expression. This practise of restyling and repurposing American and European fashion has been invaluable to the restructuring and development of East Asian fashion. In Korea, this concept is affirmed by the modernisation of the hanbok, a traditional Korean wedding dress. Using a unique white colour, designer Hyunsook Park deliberately employs unconventional colours and fabrics like lace to produce a cheap casual garment that contradicts the ceremonial nature of the hanbok (Figure 4). Park further explains that these changes help preserve the traditions of the hanbok by allowing its use in everyday fashion.[7] These choices reflect a common compromise in current East Asian fashion: being the harmony of Western and traditional aesthetics.
The adaptive and integrative nature of East Asian fashion has distinct implications for finding forms of expression during protest. Notably, Santa hats and reindeer ears were a staple of the Hong Kong protests in December 2019. Originating from Western cultures as a characteristically jolly and cheerful Christmas garment, these forms of headwear were repurposed as a tool for solidarity in Hong Kong due to their accessibility during the time of year. Retailers have capitalised off this trend, with the online store MIHK818 marketing a limited-edition Christmas set, complete with a red or green face mask, Santa hat, and Coca-Cola branded fire extinguishers (Figure 5). Meanwhile, in Japan, the Students Emergency Action for Liberal Democracy (SEALDs) protest group relied on innovative uses of fashion and music to engage with a stylish youth population. Continuously, this group co-opted several American fashions, such as the baseball cap, to promote and disseminate a modern and trendy image (Figure 6). Importantly, in conveying their messages, both MIHK818 and SEALDs have relied on Western brands and the English language to appeal to a youth culture that is increasingly globalised. Characteristically as these movements progress, they continue to adapt Western fashion and signs to create solidarity and mobilise their base, thus applying an important concept in East Asian fashion.
Protest in Action: Cultural and Societal Influences of Social Movements
Having illuminated the commonalities in East Asian fashion and philosophy, understanding the distinct motivations and underlying protest culture of Eastern society will fully contextualise the use of protest fashion in Hong Kong. The instances of national protest around the world are accelerating; for example, the first six months of 2013 saw nearly double the total protests recorded in 2006.[8] Not only is the world seeing more protest, but modern cases of social unrest are also amplifying in intensity and violence. An analysis of political contention in Asia by scholars Chonghyun Choi and Dongwook Kim found that the most prominent form of social unrest in Asia post-Cold war was anti-government protests. These anti-government protests are commonly catalysed by urbanisation, information and communication technology, and protests in neighbouring states.[9] Studies of Western democracies have generalised that economic motivations are a key short-term trigger for national protest.[10] As a result of the 2008 financial crisis and recession, Europeans were pushed toward protest and social unrest by the aftermath of the economic downturn.[11] Yet, these motivations for protest are exhibited sparingly in East Asia where economic trends are less likely to promote protest.[12]
The effect of regional protests in Asian protest culture is best explained by the political processes’ theory of contentious politics, which describes how regional protests provide useful information for collective action and act to incite inspiration which emboldens individuals to participate in protest.[13] Taiwanese resistance against China has served as encouragement to the movement in Hong Kong. On the popular forum site LIHKG, user “通街都係處” (All the way down the street) describes the various ways Taiwan has resisted China to promote unity despite intensifying tensions.[14] These discussions illustrate how the influence of regional movements have been instrumental in shifting the movement toward more radical forms of expression.
This escalation of tactics is also visible in the changing artistic representation of protestors. The Umbrella Movement in 2014 was characterised by the nonviolent 79-day occupation of Central, known as Hong Kong’s Wallstreet. The peaceful nature of these protests resulted in the common personification of protestors as cartoon characters. Childish figures and characters like Paddington (Figure 7) are often juxtaposed with police to hyperbolise the excessive nature of police force. Meanwhile, current depictions of protestors reflect the increasingly violent nature of the movement. Artists have since transitioned from these lighthearted representations to more serious pieces that portray the protestors as heroes in battle. Taking inspiration from Eugène Delacroix’s La Liberté guidant le peuple (Liberty Leading the People), “Our Vantage” parallels Hong Kong’s fight for democracy with the French Revolution (Figure 8). Replacing guns and bayonets with umbrellas and makeshift shields, this piece justifies the movement’s use of force as a necessary measure against tyrannical rule, portraying the protestors clad in an armour of yellow helmets and black shirts. These changing representations from childish to heroic exemplify how the movement has changed as a result of new dynamics in protesting.
As suggested by Choi and Kim, activism in Hong Kong is distinctly influenced by the urbanised and technological components of the city.[15] After the systematic arrest of Umbrella Movement protesters, activists in Hong Kong have since moved away from prolonged and highly centralised protests. Instead, activists have rallied under the phrase “be water,” referring to the use of smaller networks that demonstrate in simultaneous pop-up protests.[16] Often planned only a day or two in advance, these ad-hoc protests rely on integrative uses of social media and mobile technology. Uniquely, protests have heavily relied on encrypted messaging, mass Bluetooth Airdrops, and other forms of social media like LIHKG.[17] Communication technology prompts new avenues for mobilisation globally, increasing the collective action among activists and social movements. Ultimately, these activists have developed a private form of demonstration that helps protestors evade police detection and relies on the internet to assemble and to disseminate symbols and secondary media that support the movement.
The ad-hoc, or “be water,” approach of Hong Kong activism is unique in comparison to other culture’s use of communication platforms. Characteristically, protest art lacks the identifying figures prominent in the West, instead opting for more generalised representations that rely on features like helmets or black clothing. Western cultures primarily operate communication platforms to capture and influence public opinion and extend physical movements online through social media[18], often rallying around the images of prominent figures like former First Lady Michelle Obama (Figure 9). Chinese censorship and protest suppression has prompted the democracy movement in Hong Kong to adapt toward more subtle approaches that preserve the anonymity of the protestors and the movement. In this piece advocating for the “be water” approach, protestors take the form of shapeless water and are identifiable only by their distinct yellow helmet (Figure 10). Unlike “Michelle Obama,” the “be water” graphic, in addition to “Our Vantage,” was designed anonymously or pseudonymously by artists in promotion of the protests, thus reflecting the prioritising of the movement over the work of an individual artist. Ultimately, rather than seeking to directly create a movement’s narrative in the public sphere, Hong Kong activists have stressed the need for invisibility by rallying around new forms of protest and identifying symbols of solidarity like the hardhat.
Other East Asian cultures have not embraced ad-hoc protest. However, throughout the region, a continuity between protest cultures is the increasing instance of government suppression of social movements. Chinese suppression of coronavirus stories and testimonials has prompted activists to evolve digital tactics in resistance of state censorship. Similarly to Hong Kong’s use of Tinder or Pokémon Go, citizens in Mainland China have relied on sites like Github and the instant messaging service Telegram to create visual archives that actively contradict the Chinese narrative.[19] Meanwhile, in South Korea, the government of President Park Geun-hye made several attempts to ban protests and certain forms of free speech in 2017. In response to legislation that banned demonstration near government buildings, activists were forced to develop new tactics including “ghost” or hologram protests to express resistance.[20] Thus, while the specific methods of demonstration may differ across East Asia, the conditions and nature of protest cultures are distinctly similar.
Dressing Resistance: Activist Perspectives on Protest Fashion
In 2017, the use of fashion during protest was declared a major trend by fashion industry experts, and since then, this form of expression has seen rapid growth as social movements seek to unite and engage their supporters.[21] Professor Hai Liang of the Chinese University of Hong Kong has generated data to examine the posts on LIHKG, a popular forum used by protestors to discuss the movement and develop new tactics. Through an analysis of this data, it is clear that the discussion of protest fashion garments distinctly spikes in the days leading up to major protests in Hong Kong. Importantly, the discourse of protest fashion on LIHKG does not demonstrate the sustained popularity seen in the usage of common slogans like “五大訴求，缺一不可” (“Five Demands, Not One Less”). These point to the distinct role of protest fashion as a means of social mobilisation (Figure 11).
The magnitude of the discussion of protest fashion and garments also speaks to an important concept in activist dress codes (Figure 11); successful protest outfits must be accessible to supporters to maximise participation.[22] While certain articles of clothing, like gas masks, are more expensive, the overwhelming majority of protest outfits are cheap and accessible. In seeking solidarity, protestors continuously identify themselves with mostly cheap, readily available dress codes involving umbrellas, gas and face masks, black clothing, eye patches, and hard hats (Figure 12). Importantly this graphic, in addition with almost every poster or art piece developed by Hong Kong activists, has been designed for mass dissemination across services like AirDrop or Bluetooth. In creating these graphics and pieces, artists depend on references to pop culture and simple figures to convey important information about the movement. Protest fashion supplements these themes in protest art by providing clear symbols and identifiers in solidarity of the protests. This apparel constitutes a multifaceted form of resistance, serving not only to protect activists from police brutality and government surveillance, but also as a means of signalling their discontent and collective will.
The use of colour is deliberate, culturally relevant, and important to the symbolism a group or party attempts to convey. Drawing inspiration from the 19th century fight for universal suffrage in the US, Hong Kong activists quickly co-opted yellow in their attempts to define the movement as a fight for universal human rights.[23] The popularised use of yellow hardhats — which are worn as a cheap form of protection against police brutality — has since militarised the colour and placed it in opposition with the colour red. The culturally important use of red, a traditional symbol for luck and joy[24], is often interpreted in artwork to represent the violent and imposing nature of Mainland China. An advertisement for an upcoming protest uses red to parallel the Beijing government with the antagonists of the Star Wars series, the First Order, ultimately criticising China as an autocratic dictatorship seeking to grow its power at all costs (Figure 13). By surrounding the protesters, this oppressive force compels them to use yellow hardhats and black shirts as armour, in forms very similar to “Our Vantage”.
While accessories like yellow ribbons and umbrellas are holdovers from the Umbrella Movement, the characteristic black clothing of the current protests are newer developments. Hong Kong’s use of black identifies with the concept of the “black bloc,” a concept originating from the West.[25] Despite being an English term, black bloc is an important phrase on LIHKG seeing a demonstrable increase in use during 2019 (Figure 14). As the protests have escalated, dressing in black as a large collective not only signifies Hong Kong’s discontent with their government, but more importantly provides protestors with anonymity in the face of government and police retaliation. The usage of colour symbolism — visible through the amalgamation of Eastern and Western influences in adapting yellow and black to the movement — reflects the fashion culture of East Asia. The use of colour has expanded to reflect the motivations and the antagonists of the movement as well as its dynamic needs. Conclusively, as affirmed by sociologist Marian Sawer, the association of colours with a political or social movement provides insight into the way organisers use symbolic language to form identities and market identification to their supporters.[26]
While these garments can be worn independently, together they constitute a uniform for protest, rather than just an outfit. A keyword analysis of data collected from LIHKG demonstrates that the discussion of each garment is not isolated, instead, keywords referring to protest clothing are often used in conjunction with one another (Table 1). The prevalence of the phrase “get ready” while discussing these keywords furthers exemplifies the necessity of protest fashion as a means of social mobilisation, acting as a rallying cry for future protest. Ultimately, these discussions reiterate two conclusions; protest fashion promotes solidarity within the movement and assists protestors as they avoid identification and arrest. On LIHKG, facemasks are commonly associated with both antivirus software and covering ones’ face. While protestors have evolved new and innovative uses of technology to demonstrate their voice, the government and police have similarly relied on technology in their attempts to limit resistance. Protestors have depended on facemasks to hide identifying features like the nose and mouth which could be used against them. A LIHKG post by user “他只是個孩子.jpg” (He’s just a kid.jpg) reiterates this sentiment, describing how, “as long as we are wearing the same thing that is our biggest defense.”[27] Importantly, this position illustrates a vital fear amongst protestors; that their participation will follow them beyond the frontlines of protest. Just like soldiers, protestors must rely on a protest fashion uniform to protect and camouflage them in a battle against their oppressors. This concept of anonymity extends beyond physical features as activists mask their digital footprint through antivirus software and other inventive means.
| Keyword | Five most commonly used phrases and words |
| Black Shirt (黑衫) | Mask (口罩); White Shirt (白衫); Many (好多); Black Police (黑警); Police Officer (警察) |
| Facemask (面罩) | Antivirus Software (防毒); Hong Kong (香港); Journalist (記者);
Face (個面); Cover Face (带面罩) |
| Helmet (頭盔) | Hong Kong (香港); Mask(口罩); To Share (分享); Get Ready (備物);
Eyepatch (眼罩) |
| Eyepatch (眼罩) | Get Ready (備物); Mask (口罩); Hong Kong (香港); Gloves (手套);
Bag (布袋) |
Table 1: Table displaying commonly used phrases and words when discussing certain articles of protest fashion. In generating this analysis, messages were first translated from Traditional to Simplified Chinese. As a result of translation, some colloquialisms and slang may be lost; keyword translations are my own. Single character words were filtered out before generating this table. Only posts made between April 2019 – December 2019 were considered for this analysis. Data courtesy of Professor Hai Liang.
In creating these uniforms for protest, “Othering” has been essential to instilling solidarity amongst protesters. Building off the structuralist perspective on identities, articulating differences between the individual and opponent groups helps promote the creation of group identities.[28] Importantly, the Water Revolution has applied this concept when discussing black shirts among other articles of protest fashion. “White shirt,” “black police,” and police officers are common phrases used to reference opponents of the democracy movement (Table 1). These groups are often portrayed unjustly attacking and brutalising innocent protestors as they fight for their right to democracy. Artist Justin Wong realises this concept in his piece Execution, which depicts the execution of activists clad in masks, black shirts and helmets (Figure 16). Referencing The Execution of Emperor Maximilian by Édouard Manet, Wong parallels the “state tyranny” of the Beijing government with French colonial rule and makes the statement that these uniformed police officers are exacting the orders of a power that is wrongfully occupying another’s land. Execution exhibits the role of Othering in Hong Kong’s fight for democracy by placing protestors in contrast with the brutality of the police and informal opposition groups like the “white shirts” to justify the movement and create solidarity. Employing Othering, activists continue to refer themselves as “black shirts” who must fight against their oppressors. A thread started by LIHKG user “大學生” (College Students) discusses how the police have ignored the brutalisation and attack of “black shirts” throughout the protests by “white shirts.”[29] By calling themselves “black shirts,” not only do activists place themselves in opposition to these groups, but they increasingly form their identities as protestors based off this attire. Thus, the idea of the black shirt extends beyond the garment and is more importantly used interchangeably with the individual themselves. Ultimately, by using “white shirt,” “black police,” and “police officer” when discussing the use of black shirts, protesters are able to promote an individual’s identification with protest garments.
Conclusion: The Future of Protest
The memory of Tiananmen Square remains fresh in the collective mind of Hong Kong. The city knows it has taken a stand against a behemoth but the citizens of Hong Kong have proven that they will face the consequences if it means protecting the few freedoms they have left. Millions of people — from 12-year-olds to leaders of the resistance — face arrest, or worse, as they rally to protect their city.[30] The citizens of Hong Kong have demonstrated through fashion and force that they will not sit idly as their core values and government are challenged. A secret and potentially illegal language has emerged to protect the protestors, armed with their own garments and accessories. Hong Kong has fashioned a movement befitting its unique geography and culture; faceless, fashionable protestors move effortlessly in the face of unrelenting and inequitable law and order. Far more than just any collection of individuals, a sea of black clothes and yellow helmets floods every nook, cranny, and street of Hong Kong demanding their voices be heard.
A new dynasty of protest in Hong Kong is quickly approaching and the city, as we know it, is likely to change immeasurably. Using new security legislation, Beijing has made it clear that they will no longer tolerate Hong Kong’s retaliation, as it criminalises any and all subversive or terrorist acts against the state.[31] Arising from the needs of the Water Revolution as the city took on its Goliath, protest fashion will adapt to these circumstances. New dynamics are continuously changing the way Hong Kong mobilises; the adaptive creation of activist dress codes has been a thread throughout Hong Kong’s history of protest and as the movement reorients itself, these revolutionary garments are likely to evolve rather than disappear. In responding to suppression and surveillance, protestors took on black clothing and face masks to develop a faceless movement with a singular voice. In confronting police brutality, protestors rallied behind yellow helmets and goggles as an armour to protect themselves against increasingly militant conditions. These adaptive techniques are a microcosm of East Asia fashion and protest, reflecting a continuous process of adapting Western concepts and practises to the political and social context of the East.
These protests feel familiar, even in spite of the unique qualities of East Asia. Not only in Hong Kong, but also across the world, tensions are bubbling over. The unlawful murder of Black Americans — Breonna Taylor, George Floyd, Sandra Bland, Philando Castile, to name but a few — by a justice system meant to “serve and protect” has ignited a new era of protest in the United States. As U.S. citizens take their stand against a government that systemically victimises individuals on the basis of colour, distinct parallels can be drawn between Hong Kong and the U.S. Both fight for what should be universal human rights under conditions of police brutality, excessive force, and retaliation. These two movements are actively and subconsciously exchanging ideas, sentiments and tactics through Twitter threads and testimonials. Yet, while Hong Kong has been fighting for nearly a year, the ongoing protests in the U.S. are merely days old. As the unrest continues, the Black Lives Matter movement will create their own activist dress codes, complete with particular signs and articles of clothing that echo both the influences of global protest and the continuities of American protest. As suggested by this research, as well as Washington Post Fashion Editor Robin Gihavn, the chosen garments of the Black Lives Matter movement will be unique and reflect distinctly American ideals like individualism.[32] These revolutionary garments will symbolise the changing voice of the movement and embody its changing dynamics. Just as in Hong Kong, so too in the U.S. will we see new tensions and sentiments represented in the changing ways people dress.
Vincent Chim is a student pursuing a Bachelor of Science at Stanford University, with a major in Chemistry. In addition to chemistry and medicine, Vincent is interested in East and Southeast Asian politics and society.
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[1] Ellen Ioanes, “Hong Kong activists use ‘Pokémon Go’ and Tinder to organize as police crack down on protests.” Business Insider. August 7. Accessed May 23, 2020. https://www.businessinsider.nl/hong-kong-protesters-tinder-and-apple-airdrop-to-organize-2019-8/.
[2] Birol Akkus, Tom Postmes, Katherine Stroebe, and Gamze Baray. 2015. “Cultures of conflict: Protests, violent repression, and community values.” British Journal of Social Psychology, 61
[3] W. Ling and G Taylor. “Fashion in Hong Kong: A Dual Product of Globalisation and Cultural Phenomena.” The Journal of The Textile Institute (2009), 117
[4] Lise Skov, “Hong Kong Fashion Designers as Cultural Intermediaries: Out of Global Garment Production.” Cultural Studies (2002), 554
[5] Toby Slade, “Neither East Nor West: Japanese Fashion in Modernity.” In Modern Fashion Traditions: Negotiating Tradition and Modernity through Fashion, by M. Angela Jansen and Jennifer Craik. Bloomsbury Academic (2016), 25-50
[6] Monden, Masafumi. Japanese Fashion Cultures: Dress and gender in contemporary Japan. Bloomsbury Academic (2014), 1-16
[7] Kellie Ell, “Dresses, Seoul Fashion Designer Adds Modern Twist to Traditional Korean.” WWD (March 19, 2019). Accessed May 28, 2020. https://wwd.com/fashion-news/fashion-features/korean-hanbok-designer-hyunsook-park-1203086356/.
[8] Thomas Carothers and Richard Youngs. The Complexities of Global Protest. Washington, D.C: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (2015). 5
[9] Chonghyun Choi and Dongwook Kim. “The Determinants of Anti-Government Protests in Asia.” Journal of East Asian Studies (2019), 330
[10] Carothers and Young, “The Complexities,” 8
[11] Marco Giugni and Maria T. Grasso. “Blame and contention: how perceptions of the government’s role in the economic crisis shape patterns of political action.” Acta Politica (2017), 347
[12] Choi and Kim, “The Determinants,” 330
[13] Ibid, 332
[14] 通街都係處, “逾30名.” Translated from Chinese (Traditional) to English. All translations are my own.
[15] Choi and Kim, “The Determinants,” 330
[16] Tin-yuet Ting, “From ‘be water’ to ‘be fire’: nascent smart mob and networked protests in Hong Kong.” Social Movement Studies (2020), 363
[17] Ibid, 363
[18] Emiliano Treré, Sandra Jeppesen, and Alice Mattoni. “Comparing Digital Protest Media Imaginaries: Anti-austerity Movements in Spain, Italy & Greece.” Triple C: Communication, Capitalism, & Critique (2017), 414
[19] Jane Li, “Chinese citizens are racing against censors to preserve coronavirus memories on GitHub.” Quartz (March 3, 2020). Accessed May 25, 2020. https://qz.com/1811018/chinese-citizens-use-github-to-save-coronavirus-memories/.
[20] Haeryun Kang, “‘Ghost Protest’ In Seoul Uses Holograms, Not People.” NPR (February 24, 2016). Accessed May 14, 2020. https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2016/02/24/467957260/ghost-protest-in-seoul-uses-holograms-not-people.
[21] Monica Titton, “Afterthought: Fashion, Feminism and Radical Protest.” The Journal of Dress, Body and Culture (2019), 753
[22] Ibid, 753
[23] Yiqu Liu, “Yellow or blue ribbons: analysing discourses in conflict in the televized government-student meeting during the Occupy Movement in Hong Kong.” Chinese Journal of Communication (2015). 456
[24] Yin Wu, Jingyi Lu, Eric van Dijk, Hong Li, and Simone Schnall. “The Color Red Is Implicitly Associated With Social Status in the United Kingdom and China.” Frontiers in Psychology (2018), 1
[25] Francis Dupuis-Déri and Lazer Lederhendler. Who’s Afraid of the Black Blocs : Anarchy in Action Around the World. Independent Publishers Group (2013), 2
[26] Marian Sawer, “Wearing your Politics on your Sleeve: The Role of Political Colours in Social Movements.” Social Movement Studies: Journal of Social, Cultural and Political Protest (2007), 40
[27] 他只是個孩子.jpg. “［裝束統一］黑衫黑褲！！黑衫黑褲！！.” LIHKG (July 13, 2019). Accessed June 5, 2020. https://lihkg.com/thread/1313376/page/1.
[28] Thomas Diez, “Europe’s others and the return of geopolitics.” Review of International Affairs (2010). 325
[29] 大學生. “如果夜晚白衫追黑衫追到差館門口，警察係咪真係唔會理？.” LIHKG (July 22, 2019). Accessed June 5, 2020. https://lihkg.com/thread/1352728/page/1.
[30] Clare Jim and Jessie Pang. “Hong Kong police arrest more than 200 as pro-democracy protests return.” Reuters (May 11, 2020). Accessed June 23, 2020. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hongkong-protests-arrests/hong-kong-police-arrest-more-than-200-as-pro-democracy-protests-return-idUSKBN22N0QK.
[31] Grace Tsoi, “Hong Kong security law: What is it and is it worrying?” BBC (May 29, 2020). Accessed June 23, 2020. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838.
[32] Robin Gihavn, “The protestors are dressed as their unique selves – and that’s part of their power.” The Washington Post (June 2,2020). Accessed June 7, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/the-protesters-are-dressed-as-their-unique-selves–and-thats-part-of-their-power/2020/06/01/221b6fbc-a415-11ea-bb20-ebf0921f3bbd_story.html.
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